UNITS OF NATIONALLY BIASED LEXICON AND WAYS OF THEIR TRANSLATION
Each nation in the course of its historical development acquires a great number of features characteristic of the nation only and not pertained to any other, even to a genealogically related nation. The distinguishing features find their reflection in different aspects of material and spiritual life and are materialized in separate
151words and word-groups designating national customs, traditions, folk rites and feasts, administrative or political systems, etc. They may also designate peculiar geographical, geological or environmental conditions of a nation's life. No less peculiar may also be the cultural or religious traditions of a nation often expressed through certain proper names or names of saints(cf. Ukrainian Івана Купала, Маковія, or Ireland's St. Patrick, Scottish tartan, American Uncle Sam or the British John Bull, the British Lion).
Culturally biased, i.e., nationally specific are often elements in a governmental or election systems of a country (cf. the administration, secretaries and undersecretaries or primary elections in the
U.S.A.).
The monetary systems in most countries contain some nationally peculiar units as well (cf. shilling, penny, rouble, dollar, hryvnia). Culturally biased are mostly the titles of address and the ways of conduct, and, at last but not at least, some articles of clothing / footware (cf. the Scottish kilt, tartan, the Ukrainian вишиванка, кептар or the American Indians' moccasins).
Most peculiar are always national meals, beverages and even partaking of food, established as a result of a nation's agricultural traditions and consumption of peculiar products. The nationally biased notions as non-equivalent units of lexicon are also observed in some national systems of weights and measures (cf. English mile, ounce, Ukrainian верства, пуд). All in all, these notions are found in all languages, for example, in English: county, borough, butterscotch, custard, muffin, toffee, bushel, chain, furlong, inch, mile, pint, penny, shilling, pound, lady, mister, sir; lobby, speaker, teller (Parliament), Lord Chancellor, Number 10 Downing Street, Whitehall, etc. Ukrainian: кобзар, веснянка, коломийка, козак, запорожець, кептар, копа (яєць), пуд, січ, свитка, хата, лежанка, весільний батько, троїсті музики, вечорниці, борщ, вареники, галушки, кутя, медок, ряжанка, опришок, плахта, гривня; Russian: тройка, квас, щі, самовар, колхоз, совет (советский), спутник, Дума. The penetration of a nation's culturally biased specific notions into other national languages is realized in different historical periods through various channels and in most different conditions. The latter include first of all trade contacts in the process of which many notions are borrowed as designators for produce which they signify. The designators may be regular labels (or trade marks) like bacon, champagne, jam, jeans, Coca-Cola, corn-flakes, macaroni, vodka, spaghetti, sweater, tweed, whisky, pizza, etc.
Some other peculiar national notions /culturally biased notions can penetrate into the target language in the process of traditional bilateral economic and cultural contacts which may be maintained at different levels. The contacts in their turn may as well be multilateral which often facilitates an international circulation of some specific national notions pertaining to a certain language (or a number of languages). That was the way in which many a specific national term has become widely known (cf. Cossack/Kozak, steppe, bandoure/ pandore, hopak, polka, waltz, beefsteak, pudding, lunch, etc.).
Still other specific national notions become world-wide known through literary/historic works, through the press or by way of other mass media like the radio or television (cf. oasis, boycott, hryvnia, Labourist, pagoda, barter, management, picket, taboo, Tory, rickshaw, sauna, Soviet, etc.).
These and other specific national terms (and notions) found their way to different languages and in the course of some historical period many of them became internationalisms. Although some nationally specific notions signifying important or historical events or magnificent scientific/technological achievements may spread all over the world almost immediately, as it happened in 1825 with the Decembrists and later on with the Sovietisms like kolkhoz, kulak, collectivization, Gulag, cosmonaut and many others.
Therefore, the more important the specific notion is for a certain nation or the world as a whole and the more often it is used in everyday life of a community, the greater is the chance of its becoming an internationalism.
This is not the fate, however, of the overwhelming majority of other specific national notions in all languages, since the borders of a target language are open at any time only for the most important source language specific national notions. Hence, many specific notions referring to localisms i.e. being of exclusively local nature and circulation, remain within the boundaries of the national languages. They may sometimes be known even to a greater part of the national community. These may be archaic notions like the Ukrainian бунчук, виборний, осаул, тулумбас, сіряк or localisms like кулеша, плачинда, верета, пательня, бануш, etc. Besides, many other rather wide-spread and well-known specific notions within a national community may often be of minor importance for the target language communities, which live under different economic, social, cultural or geographical conditions. Our ordinary reader, for example, would pay little if any attention to the highly specific and unique for
153every Englishman notions like latkes, kedgerel (meals), proctor or whip (Parliament), the Eton and Harrow match, Charring Cross, the East End, or Bloomsbury. These culturally biased names are often mentioned in English fiction, especially in the works by the British authors as Conan Doyle, J.Galsworthy, A.Cronin and others. Hence, the names have to be explained to our readers in the footnotes or in commentaries to the novels, e.g.:
They were off immediately, Автомобіль зразу ж рушив, і without interference, swinging вони без перешкод поїхали з out of the East End in the Іст-Енду в напрямку до direction of Bloomsbury центрального району (A.Cronin) Лондона - Блумзбері.
When the war broke out he had Коли вибухнула війна, він just left Eton... (J.Galsworthy) щойно закінчив /тон (середня
школа для привілейованих).
The real meaning of the place names, having so much to say to any Londoner, is scarcely hinted to in the translations above. The East End, however, was and remains the workers' .part of London, whereas Bloomsbury as the central part of it was known during the late 19th - the beginning of the 20th century for the group of poets critical of bourgeois moral and aesthetics. Eton, the private secondary school for well-to-do families in Great Britain, is also well-known in the country, though it may be unfamiliar to our readers. Hence, an additional explanation of the proper names in the target language becomes necessary. Many other culturally biased English and Ukrainian national notions are also to be explicated in this way, e.g.: bingo б/нго (азартна гра типу лото, популярна серед пристаркуватих і одиноких людей, особливо жінок)', gin джин (ялівцева горілка, використовується для приготування коктейлів); mackintosh тканина «макінтош» (водонепроникна); Merseyside Мерсісайд (Ліверпуль з навколишніми містами й поселеннями обабіч гирла р. Мерсі); muesly, (food) «мюзлі» (страва на сніданок із подрібнених пшеничних та інших зерен з сухими фруктами, горіхами, родзинками тощо); пуд pood measure of weight equal to 16,38 kg; рушник rushnyk, embroidered towel used in every folk rite in Ukraine; суботник subotnyk, voluntary unpaid work for the public good in the former USSR on days off (usually on Saturday).
The proper meaning of some other specific national units of lexicon can be rendered without preserving their original lingual form: moonlighter підробітник - той, хто підробляє у вільний час, переважно вечорами (від moonlight місячне світло); teller - 1. уповноважений, що агітує в день виборів на виборничій дільниці голосувати за кандидата своєї партії 2. обліковець голосів в англійському парламенті чи на будь-яких зборах; whip організатор партійної фракції в англійському парламенті.
The meaning of the above-given English and Ukrainian specifically biased national notions has not been conveyed by way of translation proper. They have simply been explained in the target language. Sometimes each or some of the components, making up the unit of specific national lexicon, can also be directly translated. And yet it may turn insufficient for faithful rendering of their sense. Then an explanation of the specific national notion is added: alphabet soup «азбучний суп» (суп з макаронів, що мають форму літер абетки); bilateral school «двобічна школа» (поєднує в собі два типи шкіл: напр., технічну й сучасну середню); the upper sixth старший шостий (випускинй шостий клас у середніх школах Великої Британії}. Many specific national notions, which have to be explicated in English, exist in Ukrainian as well: виховна година educational lesson (on good behaviour and morality of students in school); учнівські правила school regulations/rules of pupils' conduct/behaviour at school; класний журнал register/form register and record book; студком students' committee in Ukrainian higher educational establishments.
Very often, however, it may be difficult for a foreign student to guess the genuine meaning of a specific national unit of lexicon even from the seemingly transparent lexical meaning of its component parts. To avoid misunderstanding or ambiguity a further explication becomes inevitable: Athens of the North Північні Афіни (Едінбурґ); bipartite system двотипова система освіти Великої Британії (передбачає існування шкіл двох типів: класичних і середніх сучасних); cubbing полювання на лисиць (у якому беруть участь початкуючі мисливці й молоді собаки-гончаки); question time день запитань (у палаті громад від 14.45до 15.30 щодня від понеділка по четвер; відповіді дають прем'єр-міністр і міністри); privy purse «приватний гаманець» (асигнування з державного бюджету на утримання монарха Великої Британії).
Not infrequently national specific units of the source language lexicon belonging to the social and political domain can be recognized by the target language speakers due to the existence of partly similar notions in their mother tongue. These kinds of notion are available in English and in Ukrainian as well: new penny/shilling новий пенні/шилінг, the Order of Merit орден «За заслуги»', Scout leader вожатий бойскаутів] медаль «За бойові заслуги» the Medal for Combat Valour; «Орден Ярослава Мудрого» the Order of Yaroslav the Wise; «Орден княгині Ольги» the Order of St. Princess Olha; класний керівник class tutor/form master; табель успішності й поведінки pupil's report/record card; залік з англійської мови an English (language) test; складати залік з чогось to take a test in/ on some subject.
Despite the fact that the referential meaning of such and the like units of specific national lexicon may be either similar or at least closely related in English and Ukrainian (cf. class tutor/form master and класний керівник, залік test), they are still far from identical in their particular meaning. As a result, they can scarcely be substituted for each other in the target language, which points to the notions being nationally biased by their nature.
This is not so with many other notions which only at first sight seem to be different in English and Ukrainian but in reality they are quite similar and can usually be substituted for each other: box (in Christmas box) різдвяний подарунок (cf. новорічний подарунок); Department of Education and Science (Gr.Britain) міністерство освіти (і науки); Department of Industry міністерство промисловості; Department of Energy міністерство енергетики; extension course курси підвищення кваліфікації; extramural education заочне/вечірнє навчання; distant education дистантне навчання.
Apart from these there are a lot more units of lexicon which have generally the same referential meaning in both the languages in question. For example: pancake, financial year, pie and many others can be fully substituted at language level for Ukrainian млинець/ оладок, фінансовий рік, пиріг, etc. The difference between the notions in the two language is confined to some insignificant details. Thus, the financial year in Gr.Britain begins on April 1 and ends on March 31 the next year; pies are stuffed with minced steak-and-kid-ney meat or with onions/sweet mincemeat (mixture of currants, raisins, sugar, candied peeled apples, suet, etc.) and not with peas, beans, ground poppy seeds, soft cheese/curds or boiled rice as in this country. But: pop-corn кукурудзяні баранці is practically identical in English and Ukrainian.
The details are, naturally, essential for our students to know and should not be ignored, as they reflect the peculiarities of each nation's customs, traditions or its way of life. The notions like these, on the other hand, may be common in the English and Ukrainian or some other languages exclusively, which finds its explanation in the bilateral or multilateral influences to which all languages are constantly exposed as a result of cultural, political and trade contacts between their nations. Hence, the similarity if not identity in some meanings of a number of English and Ukrainian specific units of lexicon can not be treated as culturally/nationally biased, i.e., specific. Though it is not excluded that some of these notions may become specifically national in reference to certain languages of other than the European area.
A considerable number of nationally specific/culturally biased units of national lexicon have found their way to other languages in the lexical meaning and lingual form of the source language. It has happened as a result of borrowings and a long use of the source language units in the target language. Among the borrowings of the kind are some Ukrainian units of culturally biased/specific national lexicon as well. The most well-known of them are the mentioned already Cossack/Kozak, steppe and also borshch, Kyiv chicken, oblast, vulytsia, hryvnia. The English/American units of specific national lexicon, which have become internationalisms are many more. Amongst them are such well-known notions as бойкот, віскі, джентльмен, джинси, клуб, леді, мотель, нокаут, пікнік, пінчер, раунд, рекордсмен, ринґ, смокінґ, спікер, тариф, фут, ярд, джаз, рок-ен-рол, гот доґ.кока кола, чіпси, миля, Скотланд Ярд, etc.
As it may be observed, the units of culturally biased/specific national lexicon are rarely similar by their nature and meaning in either of the two languages. Consequently, there must also exist various approaches to expressing their meanings in the target language.
WAYS OF RENDERING THE MEANING OF THE NATIONALLY BIASED UNITS OF LEXICON
The choice of the way of approach to expressing the denotative meanings of the units of specifically national lexicon is strictly predetermined by some definite factors, which may be both of a lingual and extralingual nature. To these belong first of all the semantic and structural complexity (or similarity) of the units of the culturally biased specific national lexicon of the source language. As a result,
157the methods of translating may also be predetermined by the specific notion being new and not yet quite known as well as by its long tradition of usage in the target language. The choice of the method of translating may partly be influenced by the sphere of circulation of the specific notion in the source language. Last but not least this choice can also depend on the translator himself and upon the aim or purpose of translating/interpreting. Hence, one may consequently assume the existence of several ways of conveying the lexical meanings of the culturally biased units of national lexicon. Each of these ways can be considered quite reliable, if it provides the faithful expression of the main and specific sense of the source language unit in the target language.
Since the nature, the structure, the sphere of employment and the denotative meaning of different culturally biased units of national lexicon are rarely of the same semantic «extension», their methods of translating can not be uniform either. Taking into account or rather depending on the afore-mentioned factors, the following methods of conveying the meaning of specifically national units of lexicon can be recognized as quite reliable:
I. By Transcription or Transliteration Exclusively
The units of the nationally specific lexicon, whose meanings
are rendered at the phonological level, usually belong to genuine
internationalisms and comprise social and political units of lexicon in
the main (cf. lord, lady, mister, shilling, kozak, hryvnia, etc.). This can
_.o be observed on the following examples: New classified rates per word Нові тарифи на рекламу в for ads in hryvnias in the Kyiv гривнях за слово в газеті Post. «Київ Пост»
«It's a poor coloured woman's place and you are a grand gentleman from Cape Town.» (RAbrahams) «You're a supercilious half-baked snob.» (Cronin) Andrew put out some bottled beer and asked Christine to prepare sandwiches. (Ibid.)
Це кімната для бідної
кольорової жінки, а ти ж
великий джентльмен із
Кейптауна.
Ти насправді зарозумілий і
обмежений сноб.
Ендрю дістав кілька пляшок
пива і попросив Крістін
приготувати йому сандвічі.
2. By Transcription or Transliteration and Explication of Their Genuine Nationally Specific Meaning
In many a case the lingual form of a unit of nationally specific lexicon conveyed through transcription or transliteration can not provide a full expression of its lexical meaning. Then an additional explication of its sense becomes necessary. It happens when the unit/ notion of the culturally biased lexicon is introduced in the target language for the first time or when it is not yet known to the broad public of the target language readers/listeners. The explanation may be given either in the translated passage/speech flow, where the culturally biased unit is used or in a footnote r- when a lengthy explication becomes necessary: They took her to the Tower of London. (Jerome K.Jerome) Downing Street is guarded outside by a single policeman. (London Illustrated) As the dawn was just breaking he found himself close to
Covent Garden. (O.Wilde) He said that Wall Street and Threadneedle Street between them could stop the universe. (R.AIdington)
Вони показали їй стародавню лондонську фортецю Тауер. Резиденцію прем'єр-міністра Великої Британії охороняє один полісмен. Щойно стало розвиднятися, а він уже був неподалік від ринку Ковент-Ґарден. Він сказав, що Волл-Стріт і Треднідл-Стріт1 удвох (об'єднавши сили) спроможні зупинити всесвіт.
It goes without saying that the transcribed or transliterated forms of Downing Street, Covent Garden or Threadneedle Street can not be sufficient for many foreign readers to obtain a fairly correct idea of what really each of them denotes. Hence, some explication of their specific connotative meaning in footnotes becomes inevitable. Footnotes or lengthy explications should always be used when the culturally biased notions are not yet well-known in the target language. For example, surfing when only transliterated/transcribed as серфінґ will not express its denotative meaning which it in reality is - «the sport of riding waves into shore on a surfboard». Hence, a combined translation must be resorted to: серфінґ (ковзання на широкій овальній дошці по високій морській хвилі до берега); similarly with snow boarding which denotes спуск із гори на широкій лижві.
The kind of explication, naturally, can be acceptable in a dictionary but scarcely acceptable in a broader text. That's why foot notes become helpful here, though a frequent usage of them should be avoided as well, since footnotes may divert the reader's attention from the content of the passage/work in which the specific national notions occur.
1 Треднідл-Стріт - вулиця в лондонському Сіті, де розташовані кілька головних банків Великої Британії.
A combined translation may often be resorted to when a short excerpt or sentence contains some specific notions of the kind: A number of restaurants and caf- У Києві чимало ресторанів та eterias in Kyiv specialize in varenyky (dumplings), kulish (a thick meal stew) and other dishes. (News from Ukraine) No. 11 Downing Street is
guarded outside by a single policeman too. (London Illustrated)
кафетеріїв, що спеціалізуються на приготуванні вареників, кулішу та інших страв. Будинок N 11 на Даунінг стріт (резиденція міністра фінансів Великої Британії) охороняється знадвору також одним полісменом
Anybody in this country can see from the definition above that вареники are not simply dumplings, i.e., small balls of dough which can be cooked in soup or stew but a piece of flat dough wrapped around some salted/sweetish curd with fresh egg boiled and served hot with butter and sour cream. Varenyky can also be dumplings wrapped around mashed potatoes/stewed sauerkaut, etc. And also boiled and served hot with butter or small pieces of fried bacon and onions respectively
1. Neither is куліш something like a thick meal stew. Besides, kulish apart from some other features, not reflected in the translation above, is not always and not in all regions of Ukraine prepared thick, it may also be thin (soup-like).
3. By Descriptive Explaining/Explication Only For some reason or other the orthographic form of a considerable number of sense units belonging to the nationally specific lexicon of the source language can not be rendered into the target language. That happens mostly when the transcription/transliteration can not be helpful in expressing the sense of the culturally biased national unit, or when it might bring about an unnecessary ambiguity in the target language narration/text cf.: matron завгосп у навчальному закладі (суміщає економку і медсестру); Pilgrim Fathers Батьки-прочани - перші колоністи з Англії, що прибули 1620 року до Північної Америки на вітрильнику «Мейфлауер»;
1 Note: in some American restaurants Ukrainian varenyky are called ravioli (Ital.).
prorogation офіційне розпорядження монарха про відновлення/ закінчення сесії парламенту Великої Британії; quartermaster старшина-стерновий у морській піхоті (and also квартирмейстер) в англ. армії.
It goes without saying that such lenthy explications of «матрона» or «Батьки прочани» as well as «квартирмейстер» may be considered superfluous, as their use in translation would aggravate to some extent the elucidation of their proper meanings.
There is no need to emphasize, however, that such lengthy explanations of specifically national notions are always required in the text of the translation/interpretation. And not are all culturally biased/specific units of national lexicon are so «heavily» loaded with information so that they have to be explicated in a footnote. Quite often an explanation within the target language text may be sufficient enough too, as in the following examples: 1 thought of Phuong who would Я думав про Фуонґ, яка зараз
be haggling over the price of fish in the third street down on the left before going for her elevenses to the milk-bar. (G.Greene)
No coffins were available, so they wrapped George in a blanket and in the Union Jack. (RAIdington)
The Tommies were numbered, formed fours, right turned and marched away. (Ibid.)
I've got some shepherd's pie for lunch today - that you used to like so much. (A.Cronin)
He's upset because we don't run Jim Crow buses. (B.Gerry)
Усі бачили, як ми у церкві на рушник стали. (П. Мирний) Пісок був теплий, як нагріта лежанка. (С. Руданський)
відчайдушне торгується за рибу на третій вулиці, в центрі лівої частини міста, перш ніж зайти до молочного бару біля одинадцятої і сяк-так/нашвидкоруч поснідати У них не було готових домовин, тож вони замотали Джорджа у ковдру та в прапор Великої Британії.
Рядових солдатів
порахували, вишикували по
чотири, повернули праворуч і
відвели геть.
Але ж я приготувала
картопляну запіканку з
м'ясом і цибулею, яку ти
колись так любив.
Він дуже засмутився,що в нас
не ходять автобуси тільки
для негрів.
Everybody saw me and you
being married in the church.
The sand was warm like a clay
stove of a country cottage.
161As can be seen, not all the details constituting the semantic structure of the translated above units of specific national lexicon have been fully conveyed in English and Ukrainian translations. Thus, the «clay stove» does not sufficiently explicate the proper role of лежанка, for any stove predominantly implies its being used for cooking. In reality, however, the «clay stove» was designed in Ukrainian country cottages (khata) for heating and wanning purposes only. Similarly with the former (historical) specific American racists' contemptuous unit «Jim Crow buses», which is not simply автобус для негрів because «Jim Crow» was a contemptuous name for a *****. When translated into Ukrainian simply as негр (автобус для негрів) the collocation would loose its connotative (contemptuous) meaning which is inherent in it. The same uan be said about the Ukrainian culturally biased notion of рушник which is certainly not quite equivalent to the descriptive meaning of «embroidered in national colours towel», because it is an indispensable item in every folk rite like birthday, weddings or burials. Besides, рушник is used in Ukraine on any other solemn or ceremonial occasion. That is why its translation in the above sentence is not fully faithful. To convey the complexity of meaning contained by the national lexicon units of the kind, footnotes may be resorted to as well. That is one more proof of the difficulties which the student sometimes has while dealing with some specifically national units of lexicon, which are always culturally biased notions.
4. By Translation of Componental Parts and Additional Explication of the Units of the Nationally Biased Lexicon
The proper meaning of some specific units of the national lexicon can be faithfully rendered by way of regular translation of all or some of their componental parts and explication of the denotative meaning pertaining to the source language unit. The combined approach in the treatment of this group of specific national lexicon units is called forth by the complexity of meaning inherent in the source language units. It is also due to the inadequacy of componental translation, which does not reveal the essentials that are absolutely indispensable for correct comprehension of the real meaning of the culturally biased lexical units of the source language.
Due to this way of rendering the meanings of this kind of units practically involves two simultaneous performances. The first is a regular translation of the main, if not all, componental parts and the next, which follows it, is a more or less exhaustive explanation of the essence pertained to the specific national element of the source language. The extent of the explanation in the target language is predetermined by the nature of the specific unit of national lexicon, by the purpose of translation, and also by some characteristic possibilities of the text in which the unit is used. When translating at language level (out of context) the explanation may be practically unrestricted: Battle of Britain Битва за Англію (повітряні бої англійської авіації з гітлерівськими бомбардувальниками над територією Великої Британії, особливо в районі Лондона і Південної Англії 1940-1941рр.); bull's eye бичаче око (круглий великий різноколірний м'ятний льодяник); collective membership тимчасове колективне членство в лейбористській партії (наприклад, на час виборів) профспілок, кооперативних товариств; члени цих організацій автоматично стають членами лейбористської партії); ginger ale, імбірний ель/імбірне ситро (базолкогольний газований напій); inner Cabinet «внутрішній кабінет» (кабінет у вузькому складі) до якого входять керівники найважливіших міністерств на чолі з прем'єр-міністром.
Such and the like explanations can not, naturally, be made in the text of a translation, hence they are given usually in the footnotes:
«Well, I can tell you anything «Ну, я тобі можу розповісти that is in an English bluebook, все, що написано в англійській Harry.» (O.Wilde) «Синій книзі. »1 Labour Day was past, but День Праці2 був позаду summer still pressed down on (минув), а літня спека the city. (M.Wilson) продовжувала зморювати. Frances wanted very little: а Франсіс хотіла зовсім небагато: salad, toast melba, no wine, салат, грінки «мельба»3, без only ice water. (A.Cronin) вина, а тільки воду з льодом.
When the lexical meaning of the unit of specific national lexicon is not so complex, it is usually explained in the target language text. The explanation, of course, is not always as exhaustive as it can be in a footnote:
Keep your fingers crossed for Щоб мені була вдача, склади me! (M.Wilson) навхрест (хрестиком) _______ пальці!.
1 «Синя книга» - збірник документів, що видається з санкції парламенту Великої Британії в синіх палітурках.
2 «День Праці» - офіційне свято в США (відзначається у перший понеділок вересня).
3 На ім'я австралійської співачки Н. Мельби.
163(I) Knew the Professor before he turned into a wooly West-Ender. (A.Cronin) Though veneered by his thirty years in the Civil Service - he had worked his way from boy clerk to principal - Gill was human underneath. (A.Cronin) I will be in the Ladies Gallery tomorrow night at half past eleven. (O.Wilde) Левкові чи не вперше за своє парубкування стало чомусь тоскно. (М. Стельмах) Згадав він поради свої... і сільські весілля, на яких він грав весільного батька. (М. Коцюбинський)
Я знав цього професора ще до того, як він став багатієм аристократичного Вест-Енда. Пройшовши за тридцять років служби в державному апараті від розсильного до завідуючого відділом, Джіл у душі і все ж залишався людиною. Завтра о пів на дванадцяту я буду на жіночій гальорці в палаті громад. It was probably for the first time in all his mature boyhood that Levko felt somewhat dull. He recollected the pieces of advice he had once given - and the rural weddings at which he would perform the honorary duty of the missing bridegroom's or bride's father.
A fuller and more detailed explanation of the kind of nationally specific notions as given above is not desirable, since it would considerably extend the text of the translation. That is why the student should be warned not to unnecessarily enlarge the explanation of the culturally biased notions, unless required for their exhaustive and correct comprehension. Laconism, therefore, should be the prevailing principle when dealing with the kind of specific national elements, but not to the detriment of explicitness/lucidity and faithfulness of translation.
5. By Ways of Word-for-Word or Loan Translation
When the componental parts making up the units of the nationally specific lexicon are at the same time the main transparent bearers of their proper sence expressed through their meaning, a faithful translation of such sense units may be achieved either by way of word-for-word translation or by way of loan translation. Each of these ways can be well exemplified in English and Ukrainian.
A.Translated word-for-word are the specific national units of lexicon as first (second, third) reading перше (друге, трете) читання (офіційне внесення законопроекту в англійський парламент); secondary grammar school (середня граматична школа); стінгазета wall newspaper; студентське наукове товариство Students' Scientific/Research Society; щоденник (учнівський) student's record book.
В. The denotative meaning of many units of the specific national lexicon may be rendered by way of loan translating as well: from English: Salvation Army (USA, Gr. Britain) Армія порятунку; the Order of the Garter/of the Bath орден Підв'зки/Лазні; the Order of St. Michael and St. George орден св.Михаїла і св.Георгія; fan club клуб прихильників/уболівальників (артиста, спортсмена тощо); from Ukrainian: орден Ярослава Мудрого the Order of Yaroslav the Wise/Yaroslav the Wise Order; орден св. княгині Ольги Київської the Order of St. Olga Princess of Kyivan Rus. The denotative meaning of these and many other English/Ukrainin specific units of national lexicon of the kind will undoubtedly be correctly understood by the target-language speakers. And yet neither of the two ways of translating can often provide an exhaustive expression of all the extralingual details of meaning inherent in most of the units in the source language. Thus, the aim and purpose of issuing our «wall newspaper», which was a regular practice in all state institutions of the former USSR as well as in this country today would scarcely be understood by the British or Americans. Neither do most of our people understand the whole complexity of meaningful semes pertained, for example, to the British Order of the Bath. Hence, such culturally biased notions are to be explicated more detailed in the target language. .
A considerable number of specific units of the national lexicon, both in English and in Ukrainian, consist of the component parts with seemingly transparent lexical meaning. But when conveyed verbally or word-for-word, however, they may lose their proper meaning together with their nationally specific nature. That happens, because the real connotative meaning inherent in the seems, bearing the national peculiarity can not be achieved via these methods of translation. For example, the «House of Lords» when translated as будинок лордів completely perverts the real meaning of the collocation as «House» here, like in the «Upper House» (or simply the «House» when capitalized) always preserves the connotative meaning of палата. Likewise with the «House of Commons» where both components are also endowed with a nationally peculiar meaning and can not be translated as будинок простих людей but only as «Палата громад».
This method of translating is also widely employed when dealing with former Sovietisms as «Герой Соціалістичної Праці», «соціалістичне змагання», etc. Here too the verbal translating of «праця», «змагання» like other notions of the kind would completely distort the proper sense of the collocations which they are components of. The variant *Hero of Socialist Work* would also be inadequate stylistically, because the componental part «work» belongs to the neutral style lexicon. Similarly in case with the former term «socialist competition» in which the noun component had nothing to do with the meaning or «competition» proper. Therefore, a faithful translation of the kind of units of lexicon is predetermined by the correct choice of equivalent units for the semes bearing the national peculiarity. The latter may be expressed both verbally/word-for-word and by means of translation loans, which should be resorted to when verbal translating ruins the national peculiarity of the source language culturally biased units. The number of English genuine translation loans in Ukrainian and Ukrainian in English is considerable. So is the number of verbal and word-for-word translations, as can be seen from some of the examples below: English: cornflakes кукурудзяні пластівці; English Industrial Revolution промисловий переворот в Англії (18-19 століть); skyscraper хмарочос;,supermarket універсальний магазин (універсам); brain washing промиваная мозку (ідеологічна обробка); oat-flakes вівсяні пластівці (геркулес). Ukrainian: карбованець karbovanets', гривня hryvnia, Верховна Рада Verkhovna Rada (Ukraine's Parliament), Герой України Hero of Ukraine; заслужений діяч мистецтв України the Merited Worker of Arts/Ukraine's Merited Worker of Arts; голова районної/обласної Ради народних депутатів, Chairman of the District/Region Rada of People's Deputies; медаль за трудову доблесть the Medal for Labour Distinction; орден Богдана Хмельницького 1,11,111 ступеня the Order of Bohdan Khmelnytskyi (First, Second, Third Degree).
It is worth mentioning that some of the above-given and other Ukrainian units of the kind may be translated into English either as asyndetic structures or as syndetic (prepositional) word-groups. The latter are absolutely predominant in conversational English, the former are more common in written (or official) language: заслужений учитель/артист України the Honoured Teacher/Artist of Ukraine or Ukraine's Honoured Teacher/Artist; медаль «За трудову відзнаку» the medal for Labour Distinction or the Labour Distinction Medal. But: герой України Hero of Ukraine.
6. Translating by Means of Semantic Analogies
Despite the differences in economic, social, political, cultural and in many cases also geographical/environmental conditions, under which the nation of the source language and that of the target language develop, some peculiar notions in both the languages may be identical or similar/analogous in their meaning and functioning. It happens due to the existence of common routine or habitual actions, common occupations, social services, food, etc., in these two language communities.
The appearance of analogous units in the national layer of lexicon of different languages may also be the result of bilateral or multilateral contacts and influences to which the nations may have been exposed for centuries. Consequently, similar/analogous national notions in different languages may appear as a result of direct or indirect (through an intermediary language) borrowings. No wonder that analogous units of national lexicon directly correlate in the source language and in the target language in their denotative meaning and mostly in the common sphere of their functioning - social, cultural, political, etc. Though far from all the analogies ever possess the absolute complexity of meanings inherent in the source language units. The connotative divergences and sometimes the spheres of use may not always fully coincide in the target language as can be seen from the following few examples. English: the City/Town Board of Education міський відділ освіти; pop com кукурудзяні баранці; gingerbread імбірний пряник, коврижка; shop-steward цеховий староста (голова профкому); stewed fruit узвар/компот; Well done! Well done! (sports) Мо-лод-ці! Мо-лод-ці!; come! come! Вгамуйся, заспокойся/ цить, цить, не плач. Ukrainian: залік preliminary/qualifying test/examination; дипломна робота graduation essay/project; курсова робота yearly essay/project; доцент principal lecturer/ reader, associate professor; курси вдосконалення refresher course; підвищення кваліфікації in-service training course; кватирка hinged window pane/pilot window; консультація tutorial.
No doubt some of the English /Ukrainian units in the list above are only functionally approximate analogies (cf. доцент principal reader/lecturer reader, associate professor, кватирка hinged window pane). Their complete denotative meaning can naturally be understood only from a larger context. Functionally analogous are also some nouns in the forms of address in both the languages as shown below:
Sir, she, being his wife will not, Пане, їй, як дружині, згідно according to custom, mention звичаю не можна називати ім'я his name. (M.R.Anand) свого чоловіка.
Грай, кобзарю] Лий, шинкарю] (Т. Шевченко) «То, прошу панів, наше пасовисько...» (І. Франко) «Oh, I beg your pardon. I'm terribly sorry, gentlemen» (Ibid.)
Innkeeper, pour! Play, minstrel, play!
Please, sirs, that's our pasture.
«Ax, перепрошую вас, дуже перепрошую, панове...»
As can be seen, the choice of an appropriate analogy in the target language is greatly influenced by the national/cultural traditions (cf. пани sirs/gentlemen; кобзар minstrel). The use of various analogiesin the target language is largely because of the existence of many translations and often repeated usage of them. Especially strong is the influence of translation of belles-lettres works and films, let alone the large scale Study of the source language at our schools as a foreign language. Under the influence of these and other factors the co-occurrence of some units of particular national lexicon in the target language may increase considerably. These units may soon become well-known to the majority of the target language speakers. It is in this way that many English and American culturally biased notions have become familiar in this country and some our culturally biased words (notions) have penetrated into the English and other languages. Many of these units of the specifically national lexicon have become regular internationalisms (cf. hryvnia, kozak, Kyiv chicken, borshch, etc.). Similarly the notions like долар, шилінґ, Торі, бренді, фунт, etc, and now also бартер, ваучер, дискета, транш, дефолт, аудит, саміт, комп'ютер, менеджмент, рокенрол, поп-музика and many others from the English/American culturally biased lexicon belong not only to our active vocabulary. They have penetrated into other languages as well despite the fact that they are still clearly recognized by the target language speakers as foreign borrowigns.
Sometimes a faithful translation of analogous units of the peculiar national lexicon can be achieved only with the help of an additional explications as in the examples like special school спеціальна школа (початкова або середня школа для дітей із психічними/ фізичними вадами); summer school літня школа (курс лекцій, семінарів, практичних занять для підвищення кваліфікації іноземних вчителів та студентів); caravanning проводити літній час/відпустку, подорожуючи в будиночку-причепі на колесах. - •
It is easy to notice that the denotative meaning of the first two of the above-given culturally biased units of national lexicon are practically identical in English and Ukrainian. The difference is in a few extralingual details only. Thus, «summer school» in Gr. Britain is not free of charge. Besides, it functions during the summer holidays when the rooms in schools and universities are not occupied by the students. One can assume, therefore, that the notions like these are only conventionally different . They are closer to regular semantic equivalents, though not devoid of some extralingual details in the source language. Our students must be aware of such differences when dealing with the kind of units of the specifically national lexicon of the source language. This can not be said, naturally, about caravanning, which is a purely American phenomenon as yet.
EXERCISES FOR CLASS-WORK AND HOMEWORK
Exercise I. Pick up the units of the English specifically national lexicon in the sentences below. Define their sphere of usage and translate the sentences into Ukrainian.
1. You know as I do that some students are capable of making you, the teachers, look bad. These are atypical students. Some of our best lessons fall flat because of these students. (A.Dodding) 2. Some ignorant jackass on Fleet Street has got together a list of cures by Stillman. (A.Cronin) 3. Sir Robert was surprised and said that this Argentine scheme (Canal Company Scheme) was known to be a commonplace Stock Exchange swindle. (O.Wilde) 4. At this point of the story enters the Great Detective, specially sent by or through Scotland Yard. (St. Leacock) 5. You must certainly send it (the painting) next year to Grosvenor. (O.Wilde) 6. He himself had a job in Whitehall «of national importance». (R.AIdington) 7. Do you realize he's the first Distinguished Service Cross we've had in this town? (U.Gow, A.Dusseau) 8. The serious part of the dinner comprised roast beef and Yorkshire pudding, being served as sweet course before the meal. (Bennet) 9. Carrie established a little portable gas stove for the preparation of small lunches, oysters, Welsh rarebits, and the like... (T.Dreiser) 10.1 can't tell one tune from another. I don't know «Home Sweet Home» from «God save the King». (S.Leacock) 11. An alderman from Hampshire was reported as saying that «the recommended increase in school-joining age would possibly be raised to six years». (Herald Intern. Tribune) 12. «Come, come» he said, «you are flurried, Mr. Lockwood». (E.Bronte) 13. And potbellied little coloured children fought hunger and sleepness while Lanny tried to
169teach them the three R's. (P.Abrahams) 14. The lady looked somewhat surprised. His Lordship arrived first escorting Mrs. Mallaby. (A.Christie) 15. Down Whitehall, under the grey easterly sky, thelow-ers of Westminster came for a second in view. 16. And, removing their hats, they passed the Cenotaph. (J.Galsworthy) 17. She was busy loading the table with high tea. 18. He was afraid that as K.C.he would get no work. (S.Maugham) 19. Mr. Huges was on the Bench. (Gordon) 20. I can get you a seat in the Distinguished Strangers' Gallery. (.J.Galsworthy)
Exercise II. Definite the ways in which the Ukrainian units of the national lexicon are translated (or should be translated) intoEngflsh.
A. 1. President Leonid Kuchma issued a decree obliging college graduates to work in the State sector after graduation. 2. The Ukrainian Nuclear Power Industry Workers' Union addressed their demand to President Leonid Kuchma, Verkhovna Rada, and the Cabinet ol Ministers. 3. Resulting from the sale of 60 per cent of an emission of municipal loan bonds totalling 15.000 hryvnias, the Kharkiv municipality will purchase 20 used Mercedes minibuses. 4. She is one of the 20 top ballet stars who will take part in the Christmas season of international ballet at London Albert Hall, opening on Boxing Day. 5. Photo reproductions in the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg show huge burial mounds of Chernihiv princes and boyars of the 11th-12th centuries. 6. The desire to create, invent and experiment leads schoolchildren of Lviv and the Lviv Region to the «Evrika» Junior Academy of Sciences». 7. In 1931 Arkadiy Filipenko was enrolled at the robitfak, worker's faculty, under the Lysenko Music and Drama School. 8. His first teacher - a kindly old herdsman - taught him to play on a simple reedpipe, sopilka, when he was only nine. 9. Then music and songs were performed by the Trio of Bandore Players. 10. Both families call the groom and the bride «knyaz and knyahynya» (prince and princess), the best men are «boyaryns», the bridesmaids are «druzhky». 11. The occasion was celebrated by Ukrainian-families with kutya (boiled peeled barley or wheat/rice with honey ar»d ground popy seeds). 12. There are several types of pysanky. one when the egg is painted in one colour; when with the aid of a special sharp tool one scratches the pictures on the painted egg (such-an egg is called «dryapanka» or «scrobanka»); when one puts thin fayers of wax on the egg while dipping the latter in paint, usually going from light colors to dark («krapanka»); when the egg is painted with oil paint («malyovanka»); and, finally, when with the help of a special instrument one draws a picture with wax, then fills it with different colours.
B. Give Ukrainian equivalents for the following traditional folk rites, customs, and religious feasts of our people:
1. commemoration of ancestors; 2. Whitsuntide/Whitsunday, Pentacost; 3. the feast of Presentation; 4. to bless water; 5. stuffed cabbage (leafs); 6. Holy supper; 7. pious and righteous; 8. Epiphany; 9. the feast of the Annunciation; 10. Warm Alexis; 11. miracle-workers; 12. Willow Sunday/Palm Sunday; 13. «Passion Friday»; 14. Holy Shroud; 15. the Easter Matins; 16. the High mess; 17. unleavened bread; 18. Seeing off Sunday; 19. Forty Martyrs; 20. water nymphs; 21. Maccabees' Day; 22. the Feast of the Transfiguration of the Lord; 23. the Feast of the Assumption of the Holy Virgin; 24. Twelfth-day; 25. the pre-Christmas fast; 26. The Birthday of the most Holy Mother of God; 27. The Elevation of the Holy Cross; 28. The Feast of Intercession of the Most Holy Mother of God; 29. The Archangel Michael's Day; 30. St. John the Baptist.
C. Read the Ukrainian passage below, identify the culturally biased notions in it and translate it into English.
Іран живе за власним відліком часу і має свій календар (сонячна хиджра), яким встановлено новий рік 20 березня -дня переходу пророка Могаммада з Мекки в Медину 621 року. Хоча Іран є однією з мусульманських країн, проте святкування Нового року (Ноуруза) походить ще з доісламських часів. Ноуруз (в буквальному перекладі «новий день») припадає на період весняного рівнодення, що означає з давніх давен у багатьох народів пробудження природи. Наші пращури, дажбожителі, теж пов'язували з весною своє новолітування. За іранським звичаєм на святковому столі має бути сім речей, назви яких починаються з літери «с» (за перським правописом): часник, гроші (щоб наступний рік був багатий), яблука тощо. Обов'язково присутні дзеркало (аби в ньому було видно лише добро), живі рибки у воді (символ життя), Коран (священна книга мусульман) і миска з зеленими паростками пшениці. І у нас, в Україні, існує звичай до Великодня посеред столу разом із пасками ставити проросле збіжжя. Традиційними до Ноуруза вважаються також добре знайомі українцям писанки. Цей давній звичай фарбувати або розписувати яйця має глибокі корені, що беруть свій початок з дохристиянських та доісламських часів (в Ірані, як і в Україні, яйце є символом життя). І хоча техніка розпису яєць в Ірані відрізняється від виготовлення традиційних українських писанок,
171сам факт свідчить про спільне в культурі двох народів.
Exercise III. Read carefully the sentences containing some American/British nationally peculiar notions and translate the sentences into Ukrainian.
A. 1. USAir has gone to «sporks», a combination of fork and spoon to cut down on the number of utensils used. The USA Today asked some Road Warriors who are best described as «grumpy gourmands» because they probably eat more meals on jets than at home. Here's what they say: «The scrambled eggs were OK, moist with decent flavour. The waffles were almost soggy. The coffee was good, but they always serve it in a Styrofoam cup, which drives me crazy.» (J.Y.Oakton) 2) «Breakfast was a Cheddar cheese omelette, it not only appeared to be stable - as compared to some that swim in unidentifiable liquid - but it also tasted like Cheddar cheese and eggs. It was enough cholesterol to have caused a block in my arteries, but it was good.» 3) «I had the grilled chicken, it was a good portion, but it was dry with a fake, smoked flavour. The salad was fresh and cresp. But it was served in a bowl, not on a plate. The wheat roll was moist and served with real butter. For dessert, I had chocolate cake. But, it was too sweet, which was good.» (K.W.) 4) «I had two choices for breakfast: cold cereal or an omelet. I had Quaker Oat Square, a small carton of 2 milk, low-flat peach yoghurt, orange juice and a banana.» 5) «This time, the plate had an ample amount of grapes, pineapple and orange slices, but only one strawberry. I didn't eat the yoghurt or the dry cereal, but I did have a warm blueberry muffin.» 6) «They served a health-food concoction that tasted like the cardboard box it came in. It was a sort of corn-flavored, crispy, chiplike thing, it had no flavour at all. We also had fruit. I like that they serve milk, but I hate that low-fat stuff, it insipid - all airline food is insipid.»
B. Translate the list of meals of a common American restaurant.
1. Traditional barbeque foods: smoked brisket and ham, or turkey; pig picking pork, smoked chicken wings, baby back ribs (half-slab, full slab), spare ribs (short ends, long ends); grilled chicken and greens; Texas chicken, a boneless breast grilled with spicy Texas sauce, topped with thinly sliced smoked brisket and melted Cheddar cheese; burnt ends, smoked apple sausage or brisket. Smoked ribs... tender meaty ribs basket with maple - mustard, glaze, slow roasted and then lightly grilled; hickory chicken... 1/2 chicken smoked and basted with the original BBQ (barbecue) sauce; burnt ends... tender chunks of twice-smoked brisket drenched in our famous sauce;
Texas-size beef ribs marinated, slow-smoked and flame-grilled. 2. Garnishes: BBQ baked beans, cole slaw and potato salad, whole wheat, white bread or buns, pickled and barbecue sauce. 3. Apetizers: cheese and assorted crackers, French onion soup, onion straws, corn fritters (hot and fresh long ends), a hickory-grinned chicken breast sliced and served atop, fresh veggies and greens, with our honey-mustard dressing; assorted relishes; vegetable tray with dip. 4. Accompaniments: dirty rice, tossed salads. 5. Desserts: creamy cheesecake, chocolate peanut butter, ice-cream pie; old fashioned cheesecake, apple fritters served hot with powdered sugar and sweet honey butter.
Exercise IV. Suggest appropriate English variants for the following units of Ukrainian specific national lexicon:
голова колгоспу/сільради, дружинник, суботник, січовик, січові стрільці, запорожець, герої Крутів, тризуб, універсали (Центр. Ради); залік, залікова книжка, відкритий урок, педрада, табель успішності, похвальна грамота/лист, курсова/дипломна робота; кобза, кобзар, бандурист, гопак, повзунець(танець), веснянки, коломийки, боярин, дружка, весільний батько, бублик, вареники, галушки, голубці, бабка, коржі з маком/шулики, борщ, куліш, ряжанка, узвар, грубка, лежанка, піч (у хаті), скриня, свитка, кожух, кептар, вишиванка, плахта, чобітки, льох, хата, гривня, карбованець, десятина, «бігунець», профорг студентської групи, крашанка, писанка, думи, «Ще не вмерла Україна».
Exercise V. Explain the proper meaning of the particular English national notions below and translate them into Ukrainian.
A. №10. Downing Street, Whitehall, the Upper House, the Commons, the woolsack, speaker, teller, whip (Parliament), division of Parliament, the White paper, the Stock Exchange; John Bull, the British Lion; lobby; ladyship, lordship, peerage, coroner, proctor, bacon, Yorkshire pudding, frankfurters, hot dogs; ale, gin; crown, farthing, guinea, sixpence, private/independent school, comprehensive (grammar, modern) school, the 6th form; jeans, jersey, pullover, leggings, stretches, tweed; calumet, wigwam; bushel, foot, inch, pint, sheriff.
B. Suggest possible ways for faithful conveying the meaning of peculiarly American government offices and their principal officials in the passage below. Identify the ways of translation which you employ for the purpose.
The United States, unlike most other countries of Europe, Asia
173and America has no «government» but only an «administration» or to be more precise, a «president's administration». The latter in its turn has no ministries and consequently no «ministers» but departments and secretaries performing the functions of ministries and ministers. Traditionally established in the USA are the following thirteen departments: Agricultural Department, Commerce Department, Defence Department, Educational Department, Energy Department, Health and Human Services Department, Housing and Urban Development Department, Interior Department, Justice Department, Treasury Department, and Veterans Affairs Department. Each of these government institutions is headed respectively by an appointed leader, as announced by the presidential secretary. The only exception is the Justice Department which is headed not by a secretary but by the Attorney General. Almost all Secretaries have their Assistant Secretaries performing the functions of deputy ministers in other European and American governments. Exceptions from the list include only four departments which have Deputy Secretaries instead. These are Commerce Department, Housing and Urban Development Department, Educational Department and Treasury Department. Still other departments in the U.S. administration government have Under Secretaries performing the duties of assistant secretaries which correspond to the government positions occupied by deputy ministers in other countries. To these departments belong the Commerce Department and Veterans Affairs Department. Secretary of the Interior Department, contrary to all others, has an Inspector General for the first assistant. But certainly the most peculiar are the duties of the Interior Department which include building roads, and overseeing the national park system, and not keeping law and order and fighting criminals, which the ministries of the interior are responsible for in other countries. These functions are performed in the U.S.A. by the F.B.I. (Federal Bureau of Investigation).
Exercise VI. Pick out the nationally specific English notions in the text below and then translate them in viva voce into Ukrainian.
The former Beatle Paul McCartney was awarded a knighthood in the New Year's honours list. Among other showbiz figures receiving honors. Sir Andrew Lloyd Webber, the composer of «Evita», «Phantom of the Opera» and «Jesus Christ Superstar» becomes Lord Lloyd Webber allowing him to sit in the House of Lords. Among others recognized: The actress Joan Collins, best known for her role as Alexis in the television show «Dynasty», received an QBE (Officer of the Order of the British Empire), white the playwright Alan Ayckbourn was knighted. Frederick Forsyth, whose best-sellers include «The Day of the Jackal», becomes a Commander of the Order of the.BriBsh Empire, which entitles him to add the initials CBE after his name. The racing driver Damon Hill, the current Formula One world champion, was given an QBE for services to auto racing, Exercise VII. Read through the text on the British Parliament below and translate it point by point in viva voce into Ukrainian.
The Glimpse of Great Britain and Its Parliament Life
1. Great Britain or the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland as the country is officially called ranks among the oldest constitutional monarchies in Europe. The country's first constitution, the Magna Charta, was signed under the pressure of her Parliament by the despotic King John Lackland, son of King Richard the Lion Hearted, as far back as June 10,1215. The Magna Charta had a great influence on the country's parliamentary life and traditions which have remained unchanged for centuries. Thus, the Palace of Westminster where Parliament is held and which was built anew and rebuilt for several times is in the same place for more than 1,000 years. Besides the Parliament consists of two Chambers or Houses - the Upper Chamber or the House of Lords and the lower Chamber or the House of Commons.
2. The Upper House consists of over 1,100 Members belonging to one of the three unequally represented groups of peers: 1. Hereditary Peers. Marquises, Earls, Viscounts, Barons (almost half of all peers), and Peeresses in their own right (ab 20); 2. Life Peers and Life Peeresses; 3. Archbishops (2) and Senior Bishops (20).
The House of Lords is headed by the Lord Chancellor who is also the minister of Justice and Head of the High Court.
3. The House of Commons consists of 659 elected MPs (1997 elections). The House is headed by the Speaker. The number of seats in the House, however, covers the need of only two-thirds of the elected MPs, the rest using the «front benches», the «cross benches» and the «back benches».
4. There are nine Royal British orders of Knighthood. The highest of them is the order of the Garter, which was founded by King Edward III in 1348. It consists of two parts - a collar gold chain worn around the neck with St. George killing the Dragon, and an eight-pointed star with the words Honi sort qui таї у pense (in French) meaning: Shame on them who think badly. The order is conferred to
175the members of the Royal family and 25 knights. The only commoner to have received the order was Sir Winston Churchill in 1957. This order gives the bearer the right to be buried in Westminster Abbey. The next important order is that of the Bath established during the reign of Henry IV (1399-1413). The name of the order comes from the ceremony of bathing (the symbol of purity) before being given. There are three different degrees of the order, the highest being the first: 1) G.C.B. (Grand Cross of the Bath); 2) K.C.B. (Knight Commander of the Bath), 3) C.B. (Commander of the Bath). The highest military award in Great Britain is the Victoria Cross instituted by Queen Victoria in 1856 to mark the victory in the Crimean War. It is a bronze Maltese Cross with a Lion in its centre and the inscription «For Valour» under it. The cross is made from the metal of the Russian guns captured in Sevastopol during the Crimean War in 1855. 5. Several traditional ceremonies are held in the capital of Great Britain attracting the attention of many Londoners and their numerous domestic and foreign quests. One of them observed every day is the changing of the Household Guards quartered in the Chelsea and Wellington Barracks near the Buckingham Palace. The Brigade of Guards of the Queen (and the Royal family body-guards) consists of two regiments representing the nationalities of the United Kingdom. The English Grenadiers wear the bear skin caps twenty inches high. The Scots Guards wear a wide black ribbon on the back of their uniform colour 15 cm wide and 25 cm long.
All the Guards wear scarlet or red tunics and black trousers except the Scots Guards wearing their traditional regimental cloth. The Irish Guards wear a triple row of brass buttons and distinctive plumes. The second ceremonial event which can be seen at 11 a.m. every weekday and at 10 a.m. on Sundays is Mounting the Guard. In this ceremony the Household Cavalry (the Royal .and Life Guards) take part. They wear breast and back shiny plates made of steel armour. The third ceremony is observed only once a year on the second Saturday in June at ab. 11.15a.m. and is called Trooping the Colour. The ceremony marks the «official» birthday of the Queen and presents an inspection parade of the Queen's own troops. This spectacular ceremony with the Queen riding side-saddle on a highly trained horse ahead of the Guards is watched by many hundreds of
people.
Among other old traditions the most prominent are the ceremony of the Keys which is over 700 years old (since 1215 when King John was forced to sign the Magna Charta) and Lord Mayor's Show. The latter goes back to the mayoralty of Richard (Dick) Whittington, who was mayor four times (1396,1397,1406 and 1419). The Lord Mayor rides from the City in a splendid six horses-spanned coach through the streets of London and stops at Law Courts where he is presented to the Lord Chief of Justice, who hands him his sword of office after receiving a solemn promise to carry out his duties faithfully. The procession4hen continues to Westminster, and then returns to the Mansion House, the official residence of the Lord Mayor.
TEXTS FOR INDEPENDENT CLASS AND HOME TRANSLATION
Exercise VIII. Read the stories A, B, C, D, E below, pick out the units of the English culturally biased lexicon and translate the stories into Ukrainian.
A. AN ENGLISHMAN'S DAY
An Englishman's day - and who better to describe it than an Englishman's wife? It begins when, ignoring me, he sits down to breakfast with his morning paper. As he scans the headlines (or the racing results) there is nothing he likes better than his favourite breakfast of cornflakes with milk and sugar (porridge if he lives in the North) followed by fried bacon and eggs, marmalade and toast, the whole accompanied by tea or coffee. But whether he in fact gets such a meal depends on the state of my housekeeping budget! After breakfast, except on Sundays and (in many cases) Saturdays which are holidays, he sets off to work by train, tube, car, motor scooter, motor bike or even on his own two feet. The time he sets out depends in large degree upon whether he is what might colloquially be termed a «striver» (one who works himself), a «driver» (one who sees..that others works) or a «thriver» (one who profits from others work). If he is a «striver», he will jostle along with thousands like him on the 7.20, probably still reading his paper (or somebody else's) and studying the successes (or otherwise) of his favourite team.
The «drivers» customarily depart about an hour later while the «thrivers» travel up to the City in great style about an hour later. But be he «striver», «driver» or «thriver»-, he will enjoy his tea or coffee break around about 11. The tea or coffee is usually brought to the factory bench or office desk.
Then, at mid-day, everything stops for lunch. Most offices and small shops close for an hour, say from 1 to 2, and the city pavements are thronged with people on their way to cafes. Factory workers usually eat in their canteens.
The usual mid-day meal usually consists of two courses - a meat course accompanied by plenty of vegetables, followed by a sweet dish, perhaps fruit pudding and custard with tea or coffee to finish. Most Englishmen like what they call «good plain food, not messed about with». They must be able to recognize what they are eating. Otherwise they are likely to refuse it. Usually they like beef steaks, chops, roast beef and Yorkshire pudding and fried fish and chipped potatoes.
They are in the main not overfond of soup, remarking that it fills them without leaving sufficient room for the more important meat course. Then back to work again, with another break in the middle of the afternoon, once again for tea or coffee, sometimes with a cake or biscuit.
The working day finishes at time between 4 and 6, with the «thrivers» usually first home and the «strivers» last. On arrival home, many Englishmen seem to like to inspect their gardens before their evening meal.
This goes under various names - tea, high tea, dinner or supper depending upon its size and also the social standing of those eating it. Usually a savoury meat course is followed by stewed fruit or cake and tea. His evening meal over, the Englishman might do a bit of gardening and then have a walk to the «local» for a «quick one». The «local» means the nearest beer house while a «quick one» means a drink (alcoholic, of course!) taking anything from half-an-hour to three hours to imbibe! There is plenty of lively, congenial company at the «local» and he can play darts, dominoes, billiards or discuss the weather or the current situation.
But if the Englishman stays at home, he might listen to the radio, watch television, talk, read or pursue his favourite hobby. Then at any time between 10 and 12 he will have his «nightcap» - a drink accompanied by a snack - and then off to bed ready for tomorrow. (S. Andrews)
B. You Say Pasta, We Say Noodle It's too soon to declare peace in the world's pasta wars. But the combatants finally sat down together at the table. U.S. pasta-makers have been angered over European Union subsidies, which sometimes made Italian pasta cheaper than American brands on U.S. grocery shelves. Afew months ago, the U.S. International Trade Commission decided there was merit to American pastamakers' com-
plaints about being hurt by Italian and Turkish imports. No settlement has been reached yet. Italy's MenconLwas quick to recall how national pride was pricked earlier this year by a claim from some U.S. experts that pasta could be bad for some people, especially the overweight. Focusing on the common goal of increasing pasta consumption, savvy spaghetti sellers aren't overlooking any market. C. Fast Food Burgers
Two quick service restaurants specializing in burgers are attracting locals and foreigners alike. If you're looking for a tasty, cheap meal in a convenient location, Kentucky Beirut Chicken and Boston Burger, both located in the center of Kyiv, measure up Kentucky Beirut Chicken wins on the burger front. Their Lebanese-seasoned burgers - it's a secret recipe, - are crave-indicing. They come on crisp buns with a variety of fixings that are in the plate option. A plate is like getting a full meal deal at McDonald's, only in Kyiv it includes a hamburger or cheesburger, French fries, pickles and coleslaw. KBC's drawback is Boston Burger's saving - French fries. While KBC's tend to be soggy and too cool, Boston Burger's are perfect, string-like morsels. Boston Burger's hamburgers are fine, but they're missing a special touch. They're simply a bland hunk of meat, with wilted lettuce and ketchup. KBC has an advantage in that it cooks as food is ordered, whereas Boston Burger premakes a bunch of sandwiches, which means they sometimes are served lukewarm and not-so-fresh. Until the Big Mac makes its way to Kyiv, Boston Burger and Kentucky Beirut Chicken will fill that fast-food burger whole in your stomach.
D. the Candymaker's Witness
A candymaker in Indiana wanted to make a candy that would be a witness, so he made the famous throughout America Christmas Candy Cane on which he incorporated several symbols for the birth, ministry and death of Jesus Christ.
He began with a hard candy stick of pure white, which symbolizes the Virgin Birth and the sinless nature of Jesus; and hard to symbolize the Solid Rock, the foundation of the Church, and the firmness of the promises of God. This candy cane was made in the form of the letter «J» to represent the name of Jesus, who came to earth as our Savior. It could also represent the staff of the «Good Shepherd» with which he reaches down into the ditches of the world to lift out the fallen lambs who, like all sheep, have gone astray.
Thinking that the only white candy was somewhat plain, the candymaker stained it with red stripes. He used three small stripes to show the stripes of the scourging Jesus and the large red stripe was for the blood that was shed by Christ on the cross so that we could have the promise of eternal life.
Unfortunately, in America the candy became known only as a sweet Candy Cane - a meaningless decoration seen at Christmas time. But the meaning is still there for those who «have eyes to see and ears to hear».
E. Scotland
It is one of those places where civilization has not tramped all before it. Scotland has uniqely combined the untouched beauty of nature with the kind of facilities that guarantee comfort.
Your impressions from Scotland very much depend on you, on how open you are to new cultures and traditions of this country. Start your trip with the cities and then go deep to the Highlands. Step by step you will be unweiling the quiet magic of this miraculous place and falling in love with its unforgettable authenticity, which gets smoothly with modernity. Tartan is no longer just an echo from the past. Any bank or football team has its own tartan. Any local family can have a tartan by just registering it at the Scottish tartan Society. And it is not only fashion that reflects a changing consciousness. Over the last 10-15 years Scots seem to have become more conscious of their national identity, just as we Ukrainians have. They do not only debate their more independent status, but wear kilts more often - for weddings and for parties, even for work. They feel proud and comfortable on these double-pleated skirts, even when they have to pay something in the region on of 600 USD for a full outfit.
Exercise IX. Translate the passage below into English. Explain the ways you employed to convey faithfully the notions of the specifically Ukrainian national lexicon. 1. Кобзар О.М. Вересай
Старий уже був Грицько Вересай. Він брав кобзу і простував на церковний майдан Калюжинців. Поводирем сліпого ставав малий онук Остапко, що мусив жербати, бо кріпацького хліба вистачало сім'ї лише до Різдва. У М'ясниці гуляли весілля, на які запрошували Остапкового батька Микиту Вересая, котрий гарно грав на скрипці. Після тяжкої хвороби 4-річний хлопчик осліп. Дід переконував онука, що для закріпаченої людини - то захист, хоч не бачитеме, що діється на нашій зболеній землі. А через десятиліття саме пісня «Про правду і неправду» понесла славу Кобзаря Остапа Вересая по Україні і за її межі. Коли влітку 1874 року в Києві відбувався визначний в історії кобзарства III
Археологічний з'їзд, на який з'іхалися учені з усієї Европи, французький професор Н. Рамбо назвав знаменитого виконавця народних дум і пісень «Гомером в українській свиті». Завдяки своєму мистецтву Остап Микитович побував у царському палаці в Петербурзі - прийшов зі скаргою на тяжку долю селянина, наївно думаючи, що цар допоможе.
Спливли роки. У Сокиринці на Чернігівщині, як до Канева на могилу великого Шевченка, приходять люди вклонитися співцеві..
2. Мандрики
Це печиво пекли у Петрівський піст або на Петра. На це свято годилося шанувати пастухів і підпасків, їх частували і дарували мандрики («мандриги») - сирні пампушки. Вірили: хто з'їсть їх у Петрівку, того весь рік минатиме лихоманка. Після Петра вже переставала кувати зозуля, що й породило приказку: «Зозуля мандрикою вдавилась». Особливо смачними були мандрики із сиру, відтопленого із сколотини (маслянки), тобто сироватки, яка залишилася після збитого із сметани масла.
3. Обряд з кашею
Щоб відзначити таку важливу для сім'ї подію, як хрещення дитини, у хаті влаштовували святковий обід, відомий у народі під назвою «христини». За північноукраїнською традицією баба-повитуха приносила круто зварену кашу, накривала її хлібом-сіллю або млинцем і пропонувала розбити горщик тому, хто покладе більше грошей. Гості скидали їх новородженому - «на мило», «на воза», «на коня», «на люльку», «на віночок». Дарували й полотно на пелюшки, хустинки.
Хрещений батько клав більші гроші і розбивав горщик качалкою або тричі підіймав його і за останнім разом ударяв об кут стола. Якщо каша 'ціла, не розвалилася, - це на достаток і щастя, її годилося скоро схопити і з'їсти, «щоб дитина говорила скоріше», «щоб дитя на ноги хваталося швидко». Частування кашею було насичене й іншими діями, супроводжувалося примовками, наприклад: «Роди, Боже, жито й пшеницю, а куму й кумі дітей копицю». Хлопчику бажали, «щоб орач був, щоб не злодій був». Дівчинці - «щоб хлопці поважали й любили» і т.ін. Обряд з кашею - багатозначний ритуал. У ньому реалізувалася ідея входження дитини в сім'ю.
181TRANSLATION OF IDIOMATIC/PHRASEOLOGICAL AND STABLE EXPRESSIONS
Idiomatic or phraseological expressions are structurally, lexically and semantically fixed phrases or sentences having mostly the meaning, which is not made up by the sum of meanings of their component parts1. An indispensable feature of idiomatic (phraseological) expressions is their figurative, i.e., metaphorical nature